The second millennium witnessed wide-scale disorder in the eastern Mediterranean regions. Several factors –of natural, internal and external causes, in additional to rural poverty and the collapse of agriculture and rural depopulation– contributed to social, economic and political upheaval in most of the region and the destruction or abandonment of a large number of its cities. These appalling circumstances also caused widespread immigration throughout the region and forced a large number of people to travel in different directions. As a consequence, abandoned cities were then occupied by groups of diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds coming from around the Mediterranean, its islands and other regions of the Ancient Orient. They settled in these abandoned cities forming the human structure that the region had known during the first millennium BC.

Prior to this turmoil, Canaanite coastal cities had established trade and cultural relations -and consequently marital bonds- with the ancient Greeks, the Minoan ancestors of the latter, their Mycenaean forefathers and their Cypriot cousins.

The discovery of some eastern artifacts in Greek regions and others imported objects from the Greek countries (in a wider sense) in Canaanite sites prove the existence of such relations between the two sides. These relations, that were sometimes peaceful and sometimes violent, were reflected in the Homeric epics and mythologies and the tardy legends, such as those narrating the abduction of Europa, the daughter of the king of Tyre, by Zeus, the Chief God of the ancient Greeks or the story of Cadmus, the son of Tyre’s king, who traveled to Europe in search of his sister, spreading the alphabet during his journey!

Relations between the Phoenicans and the Greeks took a significant turn in the first millennium BC, especially during the Persian era. After their occupation of Greek cities and colonies in Asia Minor, the Persians went to war with the continental Greeks, under the leadership of Athens. Wars lasted throughout the first half of the 5^th century BC and were known as the Median Wars. The Greeks eventually won two crucial battles, the first on land on Marathon Field in 490 BC and the second was by sea in the Gulf of Salamis in 480 BC. In all their battles, the Persians relied on Phoenician fleets to transfer arms and soldiers. Through their alliance with the Persians, the Phoenicians hoped to destroy Greek naval power that they competed for sea trading within the eastern Mediterranean.

This conflict, driven by commercial ambitions, did not prevent upper classes in the Phoenician society in interacting with the Greeks and embracing their culture. Rich men competed to purchase Greek-made items such as pottery or marble sarcophagi with mummy-like forms and Greek faces, influenced by Greek art standards. Furthermore, Phoenician temples were increasingly being decorated with statues and cultic objects designed by famous Greek sculptors. One of the most significant imported sculptures known as Eshmun’s tribune was uncovered in this god’s temple near Sidon.

However, the Phoenicians reneged on their commitment to their Persian allies, who had contributed to their wealth in return for their aid against the Greeks. The Phoenicians believed they could benefit from some political developments in the region in the aftermath of the Median Wars. They worked on approaching the Greeks and Egyptians, both enemies of the Persian Empire. In 363 BC, Bodashtart (Servant of the goddess Ashtart), the king of Sidon, who took on a Greek name and described himself as Philhellene, i.e. the “friend of the Greeks”, welcomed an Egyptian army in his city. With the help of the Greeks and the Egyptians, he attempted to get rid of the Persian influence. His failed rebellion toppled any hope of self-rule. In 346 BC, Tennes, or Tabnit II, the next king of Sidon, led a rebellion against the Persians, destroyed the Satrap (the Persian governor) palace and ruined the royal gardens in the city. Artaxerxes III Ochos then led a massive campaign against the city placing it under the mercy of his catapults equipped with flaming balls of asphalt. The city was burned down, and its king was killed despite having surrendered.

Persian rule came to an end with Alexander the Great. After his victory in the battle of Issos in 333 BC, Phoenician cities, except the island city of Tyre, opened their doors for him one by one, welcoming him as a liberator. They placed their ships under his command and provided him with food and supplies. Meanwhile, Phoenician tradesmen provided their services for the army and marketed their merchandise. Regardless of the legend that the residents of Tyre refused to let the conqueror present a sacrifice to their god Melqart, the real reasons behind the rejection is the fact that Tyre was the main base for the Persian fleet and one of the most important centers of army supplies. Alexander, known for his intelligence and resourcefulness, could not have overlooked this fact. His goal was to reach Egypt and declare himself Son of the god Amon, and therefore rightful heir to its throne. This could not be achieved without the neutralization of the city’s power, and preventing it from cutting of all his means of supplies by land and sea. He therefore proceeded by destroying it and reaching it via an artificial isthmus (neck of land) connecting it to land.

Phoenician cities thus entered Greek civilization, gradually adapting to it until they fell into the hands of the Romans.

2010 - ISSUE 90